论片面共犯的不存在

贵州铝厂法律事务处 梁鸣鸿

所谓共犯，有广义和狭义之分，广义的共犯就是指共同犯罪，与单独犯罪相对而言，是社会生活中的一种犯罪现象，它包括正犯、教唆犯和帮助犯。而狭义的共犯，仅指教唆犯和帮助犯而言，与正犯相对应。所谓片面的共犯，是指暗中进行实行行为，实行刑法分则规定的构成要件的行为的人。片面的共犯是否存在，刑法学理论界颇有争议，笔者认为，从共犯的性质的角度考虑，片面的共犯是不存在的。
从广义上讲，对共犯的性质有不同的认识。犯罪共同说认为，二人以上犯罪行为人对共同法益造成损害的，为共犯。如日本刑法学者牧野英一说：“数人共同实施犯罪，为共犯。”大冢仁说：“所谓共犯，在广义上，指二人以上的行为者共同实现犯罪的一切场合。”这一定义，扩大了共同犯罪的范围。协议说认为，几个人根据协议实施一个或几个犯罪的行为，是共同犯罪。把协议作为共同犯罪的根本条件，缩小了共同犯罪的范围，帝俄时期和十月革命后的一些苏联刑法学者持这种观点。共同意思主体说认为，共同犯罪虽然由数人实施，但是，数人由异心别体变成同心异体，这种组合体基于共同的犯罪意思形成同一个犯罪目的，指向同一侵害对象，只要其中一人着手犯罪，即使其他人因某种原因未能着手或者根本不在场，或已着手一部分行为，就应视为共同犯罪引起的结果的犯罪。这种观点可专用于解决共谋共同正犯。随着现代刑法学的发展，单纯考虑犯罪共同或者行为共同的共犯理论已不受推崇，而意思共同正作为共犯成立的一个重要条件。
我国刑法采用共同意思加共同行为的概念，认为共同犯罪是“二人以上共同故意实施犯罪”，科学地阐明了共同犯罪的性质。这一定义要求只有同时具备这二者的情况才是共犯，而片面的共犯不具有这种特征。
一、片面的共犯没有共同的意思
共同的意思仅指共同故意，包含两个内容：一是各共犯人均有相同的故意，二是各共犯人之间具有意思联络及“合意”。
其一，各犯罪人的故意内容是相同的，即都明知共同犯罪行为的性质、危害社会的结果，并且都希望或放任危害结果的发生。故意内容不同的人，不构成共同犯罪，即使他们同时对同一犯罪对象实施犯罪。超出共同故意之外的犯罪，也不能按照共同犯罪处理。例如，侯某与甲、乙、丙三人一同外出，甲、乙、丙三人见路旁有小孩玩耍，遂互使眼色，意图拐卖。当甲、乙、丙三人向小孩走去时，侯某站着未动。甲、乙、丙三人拐走小孩后，侯某继续前行。这时小孩母亲跑来，问侯某是否看见有人带小孩走，侯某向小孩母亲指了相反方向。公诉机关以侯某是共同犯罪为由提起公诉。一审法院以侯某没有共同的故意为由，认定侯某犯包庇罪，判决有期徒刑两年。在此案中，侯某是典型的片面帮助犯，他与甲、乙、丙虽然都有故意犯罪的意思，但是该故意的内容却截然不同。甲、乙、丙三人具有的是拐卖儿童的故意，而侯某无论是从哪一个犯罪阶段上说，虽然对甲、乙、丙三人的拐卖行为持放任态度甚至某种程度上的支持，但对拐卖儿童行为本身却是没有犯意的，他向小孩母亲指了反方向，只能表明其包庇犯罪的意思。
其二，共同犯罪人认识到不是自己一个人实施犯罪，而是在和其他人一起共同犯罪。犯罪人的犯罪故意内容不仅是共同的，而且还彼此知道其他共犯人的这一共同的故意内容。缺乏主观联系的同时犯，虽然各有故意，纵使该故意内容是一致的，不是共同犯罪。这种情况下要求，所有的共犯人都知道有人在与自己一起实施同一犯罪，这就排除了片面共犯存在的情形。共同犯罪的严重性来源于其整体性，整体性来自于各共犯人的行为相互配合、协调和补充，而这种配合、协调和补充取决于各共犯人在主观上的相互沟通、彼此联络。片面的共犯中正是因为缺乏意思沟通而不能作为共同犯罪处理。在上例中，侯某知道自己在帮助甲、乙、丙三人，但是甲、乙、丙三人并不知道侯某的行为，因此，即使侯某与甲、乙、丙三人的犯罪故意内容一致，他们在犯罪意思上却缺乏沟通。
二、片面的共犯没有共同的行为
共同犯罪行为的分工可能表现为四种情况：一是实行行为，即直接导致危害结果发生的行为，它对共同犯罪故意内容的实现起关键作用；二是组织行为，即组织、策划、指挥共同犯罪的行为，它对共同犯罪的性质、规模等起决定性作用；三是教唆行为，即故意引起他人犯罪意图的行为，它对他人犯意的形成起原因作用；四是帮助行为，即为共同犯罪创造条件的行为，它对共同犯罪起辅助作用。在理论上虽然有人认为共同实行犯和教唆犯也可能存在片面共同犯罪，但一般认为，共同实行犯只有相互之间存在意思联络，才能成立共同的实行行为，如果他人不知共同实行的情况，实际上不过是各人实行自己的犯罪。教唆犯在我国刑法中，只要故意唆使他人犯罪，就可以成立，因而不存在片面共同犯罪问题。组织犯在犯罪中起到策划、指挥的作用，要求有犯意的形成、行为的调度的统一规划，也不存在片面的共犯。在上述三种分工的情况下，理论上有关片面的共犯是否存在的争论不是很大，而只是对帮助犯（从犯）有没有片面的共犯在理论上有着截然不同的分歧。
共同犯罪要求有共同的行为，共同的行为不仅指各共犯人都实施了属于同一犯罪构成的行为，而且指各共犯人的行为在共同故意支配下相互配合、相互协调、相互补充，形成一个整体。“共同行为”意味着各共犯人的行为都是共同犯罪行为这一整体的有机组成部分。在发生了危害结果的情况下，各共犯人的行为作为一个整体与危害结果之间有因果关系，因而也可以肯定各共犯人的行为与危害结果之间有因果关系。片面的共犯因其实施犯罪时的单方面故意性，不能与其他犯罪人产生意思沟通，因而该行为不能置于在同一个犯罪故意的统一支配下，也就不能与其他犯罪行为人的犯罪行为形成有机的整体。
共同的行为具有两方面的含义：一是行为之间相互配合和补充，这种配合和补充不仅仅是在表面上而言，还要求是在意思的配合和补充的基础上产生，即犯罪行为人知道不是自己在单独实施犯罪，还把别的犯罪行为人的行为当作犯罪的一部分，在综合考虑实施犯罪时全部考虑进去。二是各犯罪行为都针对同一个特定犯罪，各犯罪行为人对全部行为所造成的危害结果都应承担责任，不能只对自己行为的危害结果负责。从客观条件上看，片面的共犯的行为虽然客观上可能与其他犯罪行为相互补充、协调和配合，但是该行为没有被其他犯罪行为人知晓，也没有被当作统一的犯罪行为考虑进去，应当被排除在犯罪行为的“整体”之外，与其他行为的配合、协调和补充不是有机的而是机械的、偶然的。例如，甲、乙商量某晚盗窃电缆，被丙听到，丙遂跟着甲、乙二人，在甲、乙盗窃得手后找上门，要求收购该批赃物。在本案中，甲、乙盗窃犯罪从预谋、实行到销赃的一系列行为是一个有机体，而丙帮助实现销赃的行为并没有在甲、乙考虑之内，丙的行为形成与甲、乙盗窃行为的配合只是基于丙的单方安排，该行为与甲、乙的行为仍不能形成有机的统一整体，不能将丙作为共同犯罪处理。
综上，根据我国刑法对共同犯罪的定义，共同犯罪的成立条件密切联系，缺一不可。“共同故意”是成立共同犯罪的主观条件，“共同行为”是成立共同犯罪的客观条件。片面的共犯，在主观上既与“共同故意”的要求相违背，在客观上又与“共同行为”的要求相矛盾，因此笔者认为，它在理论上是不应存在的。否定其存在对司法实践来说无疑具有重大意义。


参考资料：
1.《刑法学》，张明楷主编，法律出版社1997年9月版。
2.《论共同犯罪》，李光灿、马克昌、罗平著，中国政法大学出版社1987年4月版。

The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress


LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ON IMPORT AND EXPORT COM-MODITY INSPECTION

(Adopted at the Sixth Meeting of the Standing Committee of the
Seventh National People's Congress on February 21, 1989, promulgated by
Order No. 14 of the President of the People's Republic of China on
February 21, 1989, and effective as of August 1, 1989)

Contents
Chapter I General Provisions
Chapter II Inspection of Import Commodities
Chapter III Inspection of Export Commodities
Chapter IV Supervision and Administration
Chapter V Legal Responsibility
Chapter VI Supplementary Provisions

Chapter I General Provisions
Article 1
This Law is enacted with a view to strengthening the inspection of import
and export commodities, ensuring the quality of import and export
commodities, protecting the lawful rights and interests of the parties
involved in foreign trade, and promoting the smooth development of China's
economic and trade relations with foreign countries.
Article 2
The State Council shall establish an Administration for Import and Export
Commodity Inspection (hereinafter referred to as the State Administration
for Commodity Inspection), which shall be in charge of the inspection of
import and export commodities throughout the country. The local import and
export commodity inspection authorities (hereinafter referred to as the
commodity inspection authorities) set up by the State Administration for
Commodity Inspection shall be responsible for the inspection of import and
export commodities within areas under their jurisdiction.
Article 3
The commodity inspection authorities and other inspection organizations
designated by the State Administration for Commodity Inspection and the
commodity inspection authorities shall, in accordance with the law,
perform the inspection of import and export commodities.
Article 4
The State Administration for Commodity Inspection shall, in the light of
the needs in the development of foreign trade, make, adjust and publish a
List of Import and Export Commodities Subject to Inspection by the
Commodity Inspection Authorities (hereinafter referred to as the List of
Commodities).
Article 5
Import and export commodities which are included in the List of
Commodities and import and export commodities subject to inspection by the
commodity inspection authorities under other laws or administrative rules
and regulations must be inspected by the commodity inspection authorities
or inspection organizations designated by the State Administration for
Commodity Inspection or the commodity inspection authorities. No
permission shall be granted for the sale or use of import commodities
specified in the preceding paragraph until they have undergone inspection;
and no permission shall be granted for the export of export commodities
specified in the preceding paragraph until they have been found to be up
to standard through inspection.
Import and export commodities specified in the first paragraph of this
Article may be exempted from inspection upon the examination and approval
of an application from the consignee or consignor by the State
Administration for Commodity Inspection.
Article 6
Inspection on import and export commodities performed by the commodity
inspection authorities shall cover quality, specifications, quantity,
weight, packing and the requirements for safety and hygiene.
Import and export commodities governed by compulsory standards or other
inspection standards which must be complied with as provided for by laws
or administrative rules and regulations shall be inspected in accordance
with such inspection standards; in the absence of such stipulations,
import and export commodities shall be inspected in accordance with the
inspection standards agreed upon in the foreign trade contracts.
Article 7
Import and export commodities or items subject to inspection by other
inspection organizations under laws or administrative rules and
regulations shall be inspected in accordance with the provisions of
relevant laws or administrative rules and regulations.
Article 8
The State Administration for Commodity Inspection and the commodity
inspection authorities shall collect information on the inspection of
import and export commodities and make it available to the relevant
circles.

Chapter II Inspection of Import Commodities
Article 9
For import commodities which are subject to inspection by the commodity
inspection authorities in accordance with this Law, the consignee must
register them with the commodity inspection authorities located at the
port of discharge or the station of arrival. Import commodities which are
included in the List of Commodities shall be checked and released by the
Customs upon presentation of the seal of the commodity inspection
authorities affixed to the Customs declaration.
Article 10
For import commodities which are subject to inspection by the commodity
inspection authorities in accordance with this Law, the consignee shall
apply to the same authorities for inspection in places and within the time
limit specified by them. The commodity inspection authorities shall
accomplish the procedures for inspection and issue an inspection
certificate within the period of validity of claims prescribed in a
foreign trade contract.
Article 11
If import commodities other than those which are subject to inspection by
the commodity inspection authorities in accordance with this Law are found
to be not up to the quality standard, damaged or short on weight or
quantity, the consignee shall apply to the commodity inspection
authorities for inspection and the issuance of an inspection certificate
if such a certificate is necessary for claiming compensation.
Article 12
For important import commodities and a complete set of equipment in large
size, the consignee shall, in accordance with the terms agreed upon in a
foreign trade contract, conduct initial inspection or initial supervision
over manufacturing or loading in the exporting country before shipment,
while the relevant competent departments shall strengthen their
supervision. The commodity inspection authorities may, when necessary,
dispatch inspection personnel to take part in such inspection and
supervision.

Chapter III Inspection of Export Commodities
Article 13
For export commodities which are subject to inspection by the commodity
inspection authorities in accordance with this Law, the consignor shall
apply to the same authorities for inspection in the places and within the
time limit specified by them. The commodity inspection authorities shall
accomplish the procedures for inspection and issue a certificate without
delaying the prescribed time for shipment. Export commodities which are
included in the List of Commodities shall be checked and released by the
Customs upon presentation of the inspection certificate or the paper for
release issued by the commodity inspection authorities or the seal of the
same authorities affixed to the Customs declaration.
Article 14
Export commodities which have been inspected and passed by the commodity
inspection authorities and for which an inspection certificate or a paper
for release has been issued by the same authorities shall be declared for
export and shipped out of the country within the time limit specified by
the same authorities. Failing to meet the time limit shall entail
reapplication for inspection.
Article 15
An enterprise manufacturing packagings for dangerous export goods must
apply to the commodity inspection authorities for a test of the
performance of such packagings. An enterprise producing dangerous export
goods must apply to the same authorities for a test of the use of
packagings. No permission shall be granted for the export of dangerous
goods kept in packagings which have not passed a test.
Article 16
For vessel holds or containers used for carrying perishable foods, the
carrier or the organization using the containers shall apply for
inspection before loading. No permission shall be granted for loading and
shipment until the relevant conditions are passed by the inspectors.

Chapter IV Supervision and Administration
Article 17
The commodity inspection authorities may make a random inspection of
import and export commodities beyond those subject to inspection by the
commodity inspection authorities in accordance with this Law. No
permission shall be granted for the export of export commodities found to
be substandard in a random inspection.
Article 18
The commodity inspection authorities may, when necessary, assign
inspection personnel to manufacturers of export commodities which are
included in the List of Commodities to take part in supervision over the
quality inspection of export commodities before they leave the factory.
Article 19
The commodity inspection authorities may undertake the quality
certification of import and export commodities on the basis of agreements
signed between the State Administration for Commodity Inspection and the
foreign bodies concerned or upon entrustment by the foreign bodies
concerned. They may permit the use of quality certification marks on
import and export commodities which have been given quality certification.
Article 20
The State Administration for Commodity Inspection and the commodity
inspection authorities shall, on the basis of the requirements in their
inspection, entrust competent inspection organizations at home and abroad
with the inspection of import and export commodities after examining their
qualifications.
Article 21
The State Administration for Commodity Inspection and the Commodity
inspection authorities shall exercise supervision over the import and
export commodity inspection conducted by the inspection organizations
designated or approved by them and may make a random inspection of the
commodities which have been inspected by such organization.
Article 22
The State shall, when necessary, institute a quality licence system for
important import and export commodities and their manufacturers. The
specific measures thereof shall be drawn up by the State Administration
for Commodity Inspection in conjunction with the relevant competent
departments under the State Council.
Article 23
The commodity inspection authorities may, when necessary, place commodity
inspection marks or sealings on import and export commodities proved to be
up to standard through inspection.
Article 24
In case an applicant for the inspection of import and export commodities
disagrees with the results of inspection presented by the commodity
inspection authorities, he may apply for reinspection to the same
authorities, to those at the next higher level or to the State
Administration for Commodity Inspection. The conclusion on reinspection
shall be made by the commodity inspection authorities or the State
Administration for Commodity Inspection which has accepted the application
for reinspection.
Article 25
The commodity inspection authorities, the inspection organizations
designated by them and other inspection organizations approved by the
State Administration for Commodity Inspection may handle the business of
superintending and surveying import and export commodities as entrusted by
parties involved in foreign trade or by foreign inspection bodies.
The scope of business of superintending and surveying import and export
commodities shall cover: inspection of the quality, quantity, weight and
packing of import and export commodities; inspection of cargoes with
respect to general or particular average; inspection of container cargoes;
damage survey of import cargoes; inspection of technical conditions for
the shipment of exports; measurement of dead tonnage; certification of the
origin or value of exports and other superintending and surveying
services.

Chapter V Legal Responsibility
Article 26
Anyone who, in violation of the relevant provisions of this Law, purposely
markets or uses import commodities which are included in the List of
Commodities or subject to inspection by the commodity inspection
authorities in accordance with other laws or administrative rules and
regulations without having such commodities inspected, or purposely
exports export commodities which are included in the List of Commodities
or subject to inspection by the commodity inspection authorities in
accordance with other laws or administrative rules and regulations without
having such commodities inspected and proved up to standard shall be fined
by the commodity inspection authorities. If the circumstances are serious
and cause heavy economic losses, the criminal responsibility of the
personnel directly responsible shall be investigated by applying mutatis
mutandis the provisions of Article 187 of the Criminal Law.
Anyone who, in violation of the provisions of Article 17 of this Law,
purposely exports export commodities which have been found substandard
during a random inspection by the commodity inspection authorities, shall
be punished in accordance with the provisions of the preceding paragraph.
Article 27
If the falsifying or remaking of the certificates or documents, seals or
stamps, marks, sealings or quality certification marks for commodity
inspection constitutes a crime, the criminal responsibility of the
personnel directly responsible shall be investigated by applying mutatis
mutandis the provisions of Article 167 of the Criminal Law; if the
circumstances are minor, the offender shall be fined by the commodity
inspection authorities.
Article 28
If a party refuses to accept the punishment decision of the commodity
inspection authorities, he may, within 30 days of receiving the notice on
the punishment, apply for reconsideration to the same authorities which
have made the punishment decision, to those at the next higher level or to
the State Administration for Commodity Inspection. If the party refuses
to accept the decision on the reconsideration, he may, within 30 days of
receiving the notice on the reconsideration decision, bring a suit nor
complies with the punishment decision within the prescribed time limit,
the commodity inspection authorities which have made the punishment
decision shall apply to a court of law for compulsory execution.
Article 29
Any functionary of the State Administration for Commodity Inspection or of
the commodity inspection authorities or any of the inspection personnel of
the inspection organizations designated by the State Administration for
Commodity Inspection and the commodity inspection authorities who abuses
his power, commits irregularities for the benefit of his relatives or
friends, falsifies inspection results or fails to conduct inspection and
issue a certificate within the time limit through dereliction shall,
depending on the seriousness of the circumstances, be given administrative
sanction, or his criminal responsibility shall be investigated according
to law.

Chapter VI Supplementary Provisions
Article 30
The commodity inspection authorities and other inspection organizations
shall collect fees according to relevant provisions for carrying out
inspection or performing superintending and surveying services in
accordance with the provisions of this Law. The procedures for collecting
fees shall be drawn up by the State Administration for Commodity
Inspection in conjunction with the competent departments under the State
Council.
Article 31
Rules for the implementation of this Law shall be formulated by the State
Administration for Commodity Inspection and shall come into force after
being submitted to and approved by the State Council.
Article 32
This Law shall come into force as of August 1, 1989. The Regulations of
the People's Republic of China on the Inspection of Import and Export
Commodities promulgated by the State Council on January 28, 1984 shall be
invalidated as of the same date.



Important Notice:
This English document is coming from "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.